Chapter 3: The Freedom Struggle of India

 i. Revolt of 1857

The Revolt of 1857, also known as the First War of Indian Independence, marked a significant, albeit unsuccessful, uprising against the British East India Company.

 

Key Causes:

1. Political Causes: The Doctrine of Lapse, annexation policies, and disrespect shown towards Indian rulers and nobles.

2. Economic Causes: Heavy taxation, destruction of traditional industries, and exploitation of peasants and artisans.

3. Military Causes: Discontent among Indian soldiers (sepoys) due to discriminatory policies, poor salaries, and issues related to the new Enfield rifle cartridges rumored to be greased with cow and pig fat.

4. Social and Religious Causes: Interference in social and religious practices, such as the abolition of Sati and the introduction of Western education.

 

Key Events:

1. Outbreak: Began in Meerut on May 10, 1857, when sepoys rebelled, killing British officers and marching to Delhi.

2. Capture of Delhi: Rebels captured Delhi and proclaimed Bahadur Shah II as Emperor.

3. Major Battles: Significant battles at Kanpur, Lucknow, Jhansi, and Gwalior, with leaders like Rani Lakshmibai, Tantia Tope, and Nana Sahib playing crucial roles.

4. Suppression: The British eventually recaptured Delhi in September 1857 and suppressed the revolt by mid-1858.

 

Consequences:

1. End of Company Rule: The British Crown took direct control of India, marking the end of the East India Company's rule.

2. Reorganization of the Army: Increased number of British soldiers in the Indian army and reorganization to prevent future rebellions.

3. Administrative Changes: Establishment of the Indian Civil Service (ICS) and introduction of policies to conciliate Indians, such as the Indian Councils Act of 1861.

 

 ii. Formation of Indian National Congress

The Indian National Congress (INC) was formed in 1885 to provide a platform for Indians to voice their grievances and aspirations.

 

Key Figures:

1. A.O. Hume: A retired British civil servant who played a key role in forming the INC.

2. W.C. Bonnerjee: The first president of the INC.

3. Dadabhai Naoroji: An early leader who advocated for self-rule and economic reforms.

 

Early Objectives:

1. Political Reforms: Greater Indian participation in governance and legislative processes.

2. Civil Rights: Protection of civil rights and addressing issues like racial discrimination.

3. Economic Reforms: Addressing economic exploitation and advocating for the protection of Indian industries.

 

Significant Sessions:

1. Bombay Session (1885): The first session, attended by 72 delegates, laid the foundation of the INC.

2. Calcutta Session (1906): Adopted the goal of self-government (Swaraj) for the first time.

3. Surat Split (1907): Division between Moderates, led by Gopal Krishna Gokhale, and Extremists, led by Bal Gangadhar Tilak.

 

 iii. Swadeshi Movement

The Swadeshi Movement emerged as a response to the partition of Bengal in 1905 by Lord Curzon. It emphasized self-reliance and the boycott of British goods.

 

Key Features:

1. Boycott of British Goods: Encouraged the use of Indian-made products and the boycott of British textiles and other goods.

2. Promotion of Indigenous Industries: Establishment of Indian enterprises, such as textile mills, and promotion of khadi (handspun cloth).

3. Mass Participation: Involvement of students, women, and the urban middle class in protests, processions, and public meetings.

 

Major Leaders:

1. Bal Gangadhar Tilak: Advocated for self-reliance and swadeshi through his writings and speeches.

2. Bipin Chandra Pal: Promoted the movement in Bengal through his journalistic work.

3. Lala Lajpat Rai: Actively participated in the movement in Punjab.

 

Impact:

1. Economic Impact: A decline in the import of British goods and the rise of Indian industries.

2. Political Awareness: Increased political consciousness and unity among Indians, laying the groundwork for future movements.

 

 iv. Gandhian Movements

Mahatma Gandhi emerged as a central figure in India's freedom struggle, leading several mass movements based on non-violence and civil disobedience.

 

Non-Cooperation Movement (1920-1922):

1. Causes: Response to the Jallianwala Bagh massacre (1919) and the Rowlatt Act (1919), which allowed detention without trial.

2. Key Features: Boycott of British institutions, schools, courts, and goods; promotion of swadeshi and khadi.

3. Impact: Widespread participation, but called off by Gandhi after the Chauri Chaura incident (1922) where violence erupted.

 

Civil Disobedience Movement (1930-1934):

1. Causes: Demand for complete independence (Purna Swaraj) and opposition to salt taxes.

2. Key Events: Dandi March (1930), where Gandhi and his followers marched to the Arabian Sea to make salt; widespread defiance of British laws.

3. Impact: Mass arrests, international attention, and negotiations with the British leading to the Gandhi-Irwin Pact (1931).

 

Quit India Movement (1942):

1. Causes: Failure of the Cripps Mission (1942) to grant India complete independence and the impact of World War II.

2. Key Features: Gandhi's call for "Do or Die" urging immediate British withdrawal from India; mass protests, strikes, and the establishment of parallel governments in some regions.

3. Impact: Widespread repression, arrests of major leaders, but a decisive step towards independence.

 

 v. Subhas Chandra Bose and the Indian National Army (INA)

Subhas Chandra Bose, a prominent nationalist leader, took a different approach to India's freedom struggle, advocating for armed resistance.

 

Early Career:

1. Congress Leadership: Elected president of the INC in 1938 and 1939 but resigned due to differences with Gandhi and the Congress leadership.

2. Formation of Forward Bloc: Established the Forward Bloc within the Congress to consolidate left-wing forces.

 

Indian National Army (INA):

1. Formation: Established in 1942 with the help of Japan, aiming to liberate India through armed struggle.

2. Leadership: Bose took command of the INA in 1943 and restructured it to include Indian prisoners of war and civilians from Southeast Asia.

3. Campaigns: INA fought alongside Japanese forces in the Imphal and Kohima battles (1944) but faced defeat due to lack of resources and Japanese withdrawal.

 

Impact:

1. Inspirational Role: Bose's efforts and the INA inspired nationalist sentiments and demonstrated the possibility of an armed struggle.

2. Legacy: The trials of INA officers in 1945-46 garnered widespread support and heightened nationalist fervor.

 

 vi. Independence and Partition of India

India gained independence from British rule on August 15, 1947, but it was accompanied by the partition of the country into India and Pakistan.

 

Key Events Leading to Independence:

1. Mountbatten Plan (1947): Proposed the partition of India into two dominions, India and Pakistan, based on religious demographics.

2. Indian Independence Act (1947): Passed by the British Parliament, it granted independence to India and Pakistan and marked the end of British colonial rule.

 

Partition and Its Impact:

1. Violence and Displacement: Widespread communal violence and mass migration as millions of Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs crossed borders to join their chosen nation.

2. Refugee Crisis: Large-scale displacement led to a humanitarian crisis, with millions seeking refuge in both countries.

3. Legacy: Partition left a lasting impact on India-Pakistan relations, with ongoing conflicts and territorial disputes, particularly over Kashmir.

 

 Recent Reports and Statistics

 Freedom Struggle

- Government of India Publications: "History of the Freedom Movement in India" series by the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting provides detailed accounts of key events and movements.

- National Archives of India: Repository of documents, letters, and photographs related to the freedom struggle, including records of the INC sessions, Gandhian movements, and the INA trials.

 

 References

1. "History of the Freedom Movement in India", Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India.

2. "The Discovery of India" by Jawaharlal Nehru: A comprehensive account of India's history and the freedom struggle.

3. "India's Struggle for Independence" by Bipan Chandra: Detailed analysis of various phases of the freedom movement.

4. "The Indian National Army and Japan" by Joyce C. Lebra: Focuses on Subhas Chandra Bose and the INA.

5. National Archives of India: Primary source documents and records related to the freedom struggle.